V-God warns, "ZK is not a cure-all": To prevent coercion, it must be combined with multi-layer architectures like MPC, FHE, TEE, etc.

Vitalik responded to the community on X, emphasizing that ZK technology should not be considered a universal remedy. Instead, it should be combined with multiple consensus mechanisms such as MPC, FHE, and TEE to achieve layered defenses against coercion. (Background: One month until Fusaka upgrade: Ethereum’s boldest scalability gamble to date) (Additional context: ERC-8021 proposal analysis: Will Ethereum replicate Hyperliquid’s wealth creation myth for developers?) Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKP) have long been regarded as the key to blockchain scalability and privacy. However, Ethereum co-founder Vitalik Buterin clarified in the GKR protocol published on October 19, 2025, that while ZK technology can significantly reduce on-chain verification time, it cannot prevent external forces from coercing users into revealing witness data. As a result, scenarios involving voting remain exposed to coercion risks. Vitalik’s reminder highlights the gap between “computational efficiency” and “coercion resistance,” breaking the misconception that ZK is a universal silver bullet. The Limits of Single-Point Breakthrough The GKR protocol aims to compress a series of computations into a single proof, saving on-chain space and costs. However, the article demonstrates that even if proofs are fast and concise, malicious actors can still demand voters to reveal original witnesses or private keys, thus interfering with their voting intent. In other words, ZK provides proof that “I performed the correct computation,” but does not protect against “I am not coerced.” This gap is especially evident in governance applications that highly depend on anonymity and free will. Layered Defense Architecture To address the limitations of single-point solutions, Vitalik proposes combining ZK with various cryptographic tools to form a layered defense. The core architecture includes three modules: 1. Multi-Party Computation (MPC) splits private keys and decryption rights among multiple parties, so that even if one node is coerced, it cannot unilaterally reveal plaintext; 2. Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) allows computations like vote tallying to be performed directly on encrypted data, eliminating exposure during processing; 3. Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) ensures that witness data exists only within a secure enclave through hardware isolation. ZK sits on the outermost layer, verifying that TEE outputs are correct, creating a three-layer mutual check system. Coercion-Resistant Workflow Combining distributed trust and hardware isolation, the voting process is divided into “encrypted upload, enclosed computation, and public verification.” First, votes are encrypted with FHE and uploaded on-chain, allowing tallying without decryption; then, TEE performs calculations within an isolated environment and produces intermediate results; finally, ZK proofs publicly demonstrate “correct computation” without revealing vote details. Since private keys are distributed across the MPC network, even if adversaries control a single node or proof generator, they cannot reconstruct individual votes, removing leverage for economic or political coercion. Industry Adoption and Competition The hybrid security architecture has already begun to appear in multiple ZK-rollup networks. Polygon zkEVM and zkSync Era enhance throughput and reduce costs by combining ZK with different cryptographic methods; ZK voting systems demonstrate the feasibility of achieving “one person, one vote” alongside content privacy. Additionally, platforms like Chainlink Confidential Compute and Oasis Protocol are integrating TEE and ZK as standard features to meet enterprise-grade data protection needs. Vitalik’s warning reveals that no single cryptographic primitive can simultaneously satisfy scalability, privacy, and coercion resistance. The market is shifting from “single-point breakthroughs” to “layered stacking,” combining ZK, MPC, FHE, and TEE into publicly verifiable, risk-diversified mechanisms. This approach not only aligns with the original blockchain ethos of “trustlessness” but also lays a secure foundation for financial and governance applications over the next decade. Related Reports SEC concludes Uniswap investigation! Founder: After three years and millions of dollars spent, DeFi finally wins Alpha Mining》Shadow Exchange: What is the (3,3) mechanism? Sonic breaks through Uniswap’s dilemma. Flaunch leverages Uniswap V4 to revolutionize meme launch platform pain points—can this innovative mechanism boost the Base ecosystem? 【V God warns “ZK is not a panacea”: Coercion resistance requires layered architecture with MPC, FHE, TEE, and others】 This article was first published on BlockTempo, a leading blockchain news media.